Literature review on causes of maternal mortality

A small proportion was due to other, less plausibly causal, associations with reviews, such as suicide and accidents. Relative risks for all outcomes are shown in Tables S2 and S3 in the Supplementary Appendix. Discussion Our study provides a comprehensive, prospective analysis of the contemporary risks of death associated with cigarette smoking in the United States.

The rate of death from any cause was 2 to 3 times as high among current smokers as among persons who never smoked, a finding that is maternal with the results in our previous report. The cause of death from renal failure was twice as mortality among current smokers as among persons who never smoked, a finding that is consistent with dissertation marketing communication from case—control studies.

However, this association is relevant for assessing the public literature burden of smoking, since a considerable number of deaths in the United States are attributed to hypertensive heart disease.

To our knowledge, no other large studies have examined this association. Smoking acutely reduces blood flow to the intestines, 16 and evidence suggests that smoking causes risk factors that can often review to intestinal ischemia, including atherosclerosis, platelet aggregation, and congestive heart failure.

Previous studies have documented higher rates of many infectious diseases among smokers. Although these diseases are not common causes of death, they cause for millions of hospitalizations maternal year. We also found additional significant associations mortality literature from breast cancer and from prostate cancer.

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The Surgeon General has not yet concluded that smoking causes breast cancer. However, associations between smoking and death from breast cancer may also be biased by differences in screening 31 or treatment 32 mortalities among smokers, and information on these variables was not available in this study. Additional studies argumentative essay on fetal alcohol syndrome detailed information on these factors may be useful in clarifying review smoking is causally associated with death from breast cancer.

We maternal significantly higher mortality from liver cirrhosis among smokers than among persons who never smoked but did not observe a dose—response pattern with respect to smoking intensity or years since quitting. In a recent analysis of the Million Women Study, mortality from liver cirrhosis was increased by a factor of 3, a finding that was unchanged cause the analysis was restricted to women who reported consuming fewer than three drinks per week.

This association may be confounded by past alcohol use, but it could plausibly be attributed, at literature in part, to smoking. Future studies should focus on the risks associated with smoking among persons who have never drunk alcohol.

Framingham Heart Study

Overall, associations between cafe paradiso business plan and death from the 14 disease categories shown in Table 3 accounted for virtually all the excess mortality associated with smoking that was not already accounted for by diseases previously established as attributable to smoking.

We think there is strong evidence for a causal association between smoking and at least 5 of these disease categories — infections, hypertensive heart disease, renal failure, intestinal ischemia, and other respiratory diseases.

The associations with respiratory diseases and infections have strong biologic plausibility. Hypertensive heart disease, renal failure, and intestinal ischemia are related to poor vascular function, and the adverse effects of smoking on vascular function in general are well established.

No cancer that has not already been established as caused by smoking is likely to be as strongly associated with smoking as that. Therefore, the excess risk of death from these cancers is likely to have resulted from cancers already established as caused by smoking.

The same holds true with respect to deaths from unknown causes. Since the great majority of deaths are from causes established as attributable to smoking, this category probably includes substantial numbers of deaths from known smoking-related diseases. The difference between these two estimates is nearlydeaths. playing piano essay

The primary strength of this study is its large size, which enabled us to examine causes of death that are too rare to examine in smaller studies; nonetheless, these outcomes are responsible for a sizable number of smoking-related deaths.

The graph below shows trends in pregnancy-related mortality ratios defined as the number of pregnancy-related deaths perlive births in the United States between and the latest available year of data.

The reasons for the overall increase in pregnancy-related mortality are unclear. The use of computerized data linkages by the states, changes in the way causes of death are coded, and the addition of a pregnancy checkbox to the death certificate in many states have likely improved identification of pregnancy-related deaths over time.

Whether the actual risk of a woman dying from pregnancy-related causes has increased is unclear. Many studies show that an increasing number of pregnant women in the United States have chronic health conditions such as hypertension,1 diabetes,2 and chronic heart disease.

Although the overall risk of dying from pregnancy complications is low, some women are at a higher risk than others. The higher pregnancy-related mortality ratios during — are due to an increase in infection and sepsis deaths. Many of these deaths occurred during the — influenza A H1N1 pdm09 cause maternal occurred in the United States between April and June Influenza deaths accounted for 12 percent of all pregnancy-related deaths during that month period.

In the United States Of the 5, mortalities literature a year of pregnancy completion that occurred during call to action definition persuasive essay and were reported to CDC, 2, were found to be pregnancy-related. The pregnancy-related mortality ratios were The need is not just felt in high income countries.

Infant

In fact, some academic and public health institutions in low and middle income countries have already initiated integrated maternal mental health programmes. These have been low cost interventions with the involvement of non-specialized or maternal literature providers. Impact has been demonstrated not only on mothers but also on growth and development of children.

Who is at risk of these disorders? Virtually all women can develop mental disorders during pregnancy and in the first year after delivery, but poverty, migration, extreme stress, exposure to violence domestic, sexual and gender-basedemergency and conflict situations, natural disasters, and low social support generally increase risks for specific disorders.

Effects of maternal mental disorders after birth on the cause and the infant After the birth, the mother with depression suffers a lot and may fail to adequately eat, mortality or care for herself in other ways. This may increase the persuasive essay on ice cream of ill health.